Key Concepts & Theories
1. Strain Theory (Merton, 1938)
Crime results from the gap between societal goals (wealth, success) and the legitimate means available to achieve them. When people can't succeed legally, they may innovate (crime), retreat, or rebel.
Crime results from the gap between societal goals (wealth, success) and the legitimate means available to achieve them. When people can't succeed legally, they may innovate (crime), retreat, or rebel.
2. Social Disorganization Theory
Shaw & McKay (1942): crime concentrates in neighborhoods with poverty, ethnic heterogeneity, and residential mobility. These factors weaken community institutions (family, schools, churches) that normally prevent crime.
Shaw & McKay (1942): crime concentrates in neighborhoods with poverty, ethnic heterogeneity, and residential mobility. These factors weaken community institutions (family, schools, churches) that normally prevent crime.
3. Differential Association Theory (Sutherland, 1939)
Criminal behavior is learned through intimate personal groups. People learn techniques, motives, and rationalizations for crime. More exposure to pro-criminal than anti-criminal definitions → crime.
Criminal behavior is learned through intimate personal groups. People learn techniques, motives, and rationalizations for crime. More exposure to pro-criminal than anti-criminal definitions → crime.
4. Rational Choice Theory
Offenders make calculated decisions weighing costs and benefits. Crime can be prevented by increasing effort (target hardening), increasing risk (surveillance), reducing rewards, removing excuses, and reducing provocations.
Offenders make calculated decisions weighing costs and benefits. Crime can be prevented by increasing effort (target hardening), increasing risk (surveillance), reducing rewards, removing excuses, and reducing provocations.
5. Labeling Theory (Becker, 1963)
Deviance isn't inherent in acts but is created by societal reactions. Being labeled a "criminal" can lead to secondary deviance — the person internalizes the label and continues offending. Focus on consequences of stigmatization.
Deviance isn't inherent in acts but is created by societal reactions. Being labeled a "criminal" can lead to secondary deviance — the person internalizes the label and continues offending. Focus on consequences of stigmatization.
Core Definitions
Deviance: Behavior that violates social norms. Not always criminal (e.g., unusual fashion). Context-dependent — what's deviant in one culture may be normal in another.
Recidivism: The tendency of a convicted criminal to reoffend. US recidivism rate: ~68% rearrested within 3 years, ~83% within 9 years. Major focus of rehabilitation programs.
Dark Figure of Crime: The amount of crime not reported to police. National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) reveals the gap between reported crime (UCR) and actual victimization.
Broken Windows Theory: Wilson & Kelling (1982): visible disorder (broken windows, graffiti) signals lack of control, leading to more serious crime. Controversial basis for zero-tolerance policing in 1990s NYC.
General Strain Theory: Agnew (1992): extends Merton to include emotional strains — negative relationships, failure to achieve goals, loss of positive stimuli. Crime as coping mechanism for anger/frustration.
Worked Examples
Example 1: Strain Theory Applied
A young person in poverty sees wealth advertised everywhere but has no job prospects or education access. Merton's adaptation: Innovation — using illegal means (drug dealing, theft) to achieve the culturally goal of material success.
A young person in poverty sees wealth advertised everywhere but has no job prospects or education access. Merton's adaptation: Innovation — using illegal means (drug dealing, theft) to achieve the culturally goal of material success.
Example 2: Routine Activity Theory
Crime occurs when three elements converge in time/space: motivated offender + suitable target + absence of capable guardianship. Example: unguarded bike in a public area during low foot traffic.
Crime occurs when three elements converge in time/space: motivated offender + suitable target + absence of capable guardianship. Example: unguarded bike in a public area during low foot traffic.
Example 3: Social Disorganization Mapping
Shaw & McKay mapped Chicago's juvenile delinquency rates (1920s-30s). Highest in transitional zones (near downtown industry) — characterized by poverty, heterogeneity, and mobility. Lowest in stable residential suburbs.
Shaw & McKay mapped Chicago's juvenile delinquency rates (1920s-30s). Highest in transitional zones (near downtown industry) — characterized by poverty, heterogeneity, and mobility. Lowest in stable residential suburbs.
Practice Problems
Problem 1: What are Merton's five adaptations to strain?
Answer: Conformity (accept goals & means), Innovation (accept goals, reject means), Ritualism (reject goals, accept means), Retreatism (reject both), Rebellion (replace both).
Answer: Conformity (accept goals & means), Innovation (accept goals, reject means), Ritualism (reject goals, accept means), Retreatism (reject both), Rebellion (replace both).
Problem 2: What is the difference between the Uniform Crime Report (UCR) and the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)?
Answer: UCR: crimes reported to police (official data). NCVS: household survey of victimization regardless of police reporting. NCVS captures the dark figure of crime.
Answer: UCR: crimes reported to police (official data). NCVS: household survey of victimization regardless of police reporting. NCVS captures the dark figure of crime.
Problem 3: Explain the difference between primary and secondary deviance.
Answer: Primary deviance: initial act of rule-breaking (may go unnoticed). Secondary deviance: deviance resulting from societal reaction to primary deviance — the labeled person internalizes the deviant identity.
Answer: Primary deviance: initial act of rule-breaking (may go unnoticed). Secondary deviance: deviance resulting from societal reaction to primary deviance — the labeled person internalizes the deviant identity.
Problem 4: What are the three elements of routine activity theory?
Answer: (1) Motivated offender, (2) Suitable target, (3) Absence of capable guardian. All three must converge in time and space for a crime to occur.
Answer: (1) Motivated offender, (2) Suitable target, (3) Absence of capable guardian. All three must converge in time and space for a crime to occur.
Problem 5: Criticize the broken windows theory.
Answer: Criticisms: correlation ≠ causation; led to discriminatory policing (stop-and-frisk); displacement of crime rather than elimination; studies show mixed results; may damage police-community relations.
Answer: Criticisms: correlation ≠ causation; led to discriminatory policing (stop-and-frisk); displacement of crime rather than elimination; studies show mixed results; may damage police-community relations.