Key Concepts & Theories
1. Utilitarianism (Consequentialism)
Bentham, Mill: actions are right if they maximize overall happiness/well-being ("the greatest good for the greatest number"). Act vs. rule utilitarianism. Criticized for ignoring rights, justice, and individual dignity.
Bentham, Mill: actions are right if they maximize overall happiness/well-being ("the greatest good for the greatest number"). Act vs. rule utilitarianism. Criticized for ignoring rights, justice, and individual dignity.
2. Deontology (Kantian Ethics)
Immanuel Kant: duty-based ethics. Categorical Imperative: (1) Act only by maxims you could universalize. (2) Treat humanity never merely as a means but always also as an end. Moral worth depends on intention, not consequences.
Immanuel Kant: duty-based ethics. Categorical Imperative: (1) Act only by maxims you could universalize. (2) Treat humanity never merely as a means but always also as an end. Moral worth depends on intention, not consequences.
3. Virtue Ethics
Aristotle: ethics is about character, not rules. Cultivate virtues (courage, temperance, justice, wisdom) through practice. Eudaimonia (flourishing) is the highest good. The golden mean: virtue is the mean between excess and deficiency.
Aristotle: ethics is about character, not rules. Cultivate virtues (courage, temperance, justice, wisdom) through practice. Eudaimonia (flourishing) is the highest good. The golden mean: virtue is the mean between excess and deficiency.
4. Social Contract Theory
Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Rawls: morality derives from agreement among rational individuals. Rawls' veil of ignorance: design society without knowing your position — ensures fairness. Justice as fairness.
Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Rawls: morality derives from agreement among rational individuals. Rawls' veil of ignorance: design society without knowing your position — ensures fairness. Justice as fairness.
5. Applied Ethics
Bioethics (autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, justice). Business ethics (stakeholder vs. shareholder). Environmental ethics (anthropocentrism vs. ecocentrism). AI ethics (bias, accountability, transparency).
Bioethics (autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, justice). Business ethics (stakeholder vs. shareholder). Environmental ethics (anthropocentrism vs. ecocentrism). AI ethics (bias, accountability, transparency).
Core Definitions
Moral Relativism: The view that moral truths are relative to cultures or individuals. Descriptive: different cultures have different morals (fact). Normative: no culture's morals are objectively better (controversial thesis).
Cultural Relativism: The view that moral codes are culture-specific — no universal standard. "When in Rome, do as the Romans do." Criticized for making moral progress impossible and justifying harmful practices.
The Is-Ought Problem: Hume (1739): you cannot derive an "ought" (moral conclusion) from an "is" (factual premise). Descriptive statements alone don't imply normative conclusions. Central challenge in metaethics.
Worked Examples
Example 1: Kant's Universalization
Lying promise: "I'll pay you back" with no intention of paying. If universalized, promising becomes meaningless (no one believes promises). Contradiction in conception — the maxim fails the categorical imperative. Therefore, lying promises are immoral.
Lying promise: "I'll pay you back" with no intention of paying. If universalized, promising becomes meaningless (no one believes promises). Contradiction in conception — the maxim fails the categorical imperative. Therefore, lying promises are immoral.
Example 2: Utilitarian Calculation
Whistleblowing: exposing corporate fraud harms shareholders and employees (short-term) but prevents harm to millions of consumers (long-term). Rule utilitarianism: the rule "expose fraud when public safety is at risk" maximizes utility overall.
Whistleblowing: exposing corporate fraud harms shareholders and employees (short-term) but prevents harm to millions of consumers (long-term). Rule utilitarianism: the rule "expose fraud when public safety is at risk" maximizes utility overall.
Example 3: Rawls' Veil of Ignorance
Designing a society without knowing your race, gender, class, or abilities. Principles chosen: (1) Equal basic liberties for all. (2) Social/economic inequalities must benefit the least advantaged (difference principle). Ensures fairness.
Designing a society without knowing your race, gender, class, or abilities. Principles chosen: (1) Equal basic liberties for all. (2) Social/economic inequalities must benefit the least advantaged (difference principle). Ensures fairness.
Practice Problems
Problem 1: What is the difference between act and rule utilitarianism?
Answer: Act: evaluate each action individually for utility. Rule: follow rules that generally maximize utility. Rule avoids "utility monsters" and unjust exceptions but can seem rigid.
Answer: Act: evaluate each action individually for utility. Rule: follow rules that generally maximize utility. Rule avoids "utility monsters" and unjust exceptions but can seem rigid.
Problem 2: What are Kant's two formulations of the Categorical Imperative?
Answer: (1) Universal law: act only by maxims you could consistently universalize. (2) Humanity formula: treat humanity never merely as a means but always also as an end.
Answer: (1) Universal law: act only by maxims you could consistently universalize. (2) Humanity formula: treat humanity never merely as a means but always also as an end.
Problem 3: What is the trolley problem and what does it illustrate?
Answer: A trolley will kill 5; you can divert it to kill 1. Illustrates tension between utilitarianism (save more lives) and deontology (don't use people as means). The fatty man variant tests whether intention matters.
Answer: A trolley will kill 5; you can divert it to kill 1. Illustrates tension between utilitarianism (save more lives) and deontology (don't use people as means). The fatty man variant tests whether intention matters.
Problem 4: What is eudaimonia in Aristotle's ethics?
Answer: Human flourishing — living a life of virtue in accordance with reason. Not pleasure or honor, but fulfilling our unique human function (rational activity). Achieved through habituation of virtues.
Answer: Human flourishing — living a life of virtue in accordance with reason. Not pleasure or honor, but fulfilling our unique human function (rational activity). Achieved through habituation of virtues.
Problem 5: What is the is-ought gap?
Answer: Hume's observation that you cannot logically derive moral conclusions (ought) from factual premises (is) alone. "People are hungry" doesn't imply "we ought to feed them" without a moral premise.
Answer: Hume's observation that you cannot logically derive moral conclusions (ought) from factual premises (is) alone. "People are hungry" doesn't imply "we ought to feed them" without a moral premise.