Key Formulas & Frameworks
Legislative (makes laws) + Executive (enforces laws) + Judicial (interprets laws)
Checks and balances prevent any branch from dominating
Left (Liberal/Progressive): Equality, government intervention, social justice
Center (Moderate): Pragmatic, mixed approach
Right (Conservative/Libertarian): Tradition, free markets, limited government
Authoritarian (top) ↔ Libertarian (bottom) — Nolan Chart adds economic/social dimensions
First-Past-the-Post (FPTP): Most votes wins, single winner
Proportional Representation (PR): Seats allocated by vote share
Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP): Combines FPTP + PR
Duverger's Law: FPTP tends toward two-party systems; PR toward multiparty
Realism: States are rational actors in anarchic system; power and national interest dominate
Liberalism: Cooperation, international institutions, democracy, and interdependence promote peace
Constructivism: Ideas, norms, and identities shape international politics
Individual level: Leader psychology, decision-making
State level: Government type, economy, culture
Systemic level: International anarchy, polarity, institutions
Explains war/conflict from different perspectives
A state has: (1) Territory, (2) Population, (3) Sovereignty, (4) Monopoly on legitimate use of force
Nation-state: A nation (shared identity) + state (political organization)
Hobbes: State of nature = "nasty, brutish, short" → absolute sovereign needed
Locke: Natural rights (life, liberty, property) → government by consent, right to revolution
Rousseau: General will → popular sovereignty
Legitimacy of government derives from consent of the governed
Federal: Power divided between national and state governments (US, Germany, India)
Unitary: Power centralized; local governments derive authority from center (France, Japan, UK)
Confederal: States retain sovereignty; weak central government (EU, Articles of Confederation)
Core Concepts
Power and Authority
Power is the ability to influence others, even against their will (coercive). Authority is legitimate power — power recognized as rightful. Weber's three types of legitimate authority: Traditional (custom, heredity — monarchies), Charismatic (personal qualities — revolutionary leaders), Legal-Rational (rules and procedures — modern bureaucracies). Most modern states rely primarily on legal-rational authority.
Democracy and Its Variants
Democracy means "rule by the people." Direct democracy: Citizens vote directly on policies (Swiss referenda, ancient Athens). Representative democracy: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions (US, UK, India). Liberal democracy: Representative democracy + constitutional limits, protection of individual rights, rule of law, free and fair elections. Key principles: popular sovereignty, political equality, political liberty, majority rule with minority rights.
Political Ideologies
Systematic sets of beliefs about politics and society. Major ideologies: Liberalism — individual freedom, free markets, limited government (classical) or social justice and government intervention (modern). Conservatism — tradition, order, gradual change, skepticism of radical reform. Socialism — collective ownership, equality, workers' rights. Fascism — ultranationalism, authoritarianism, suppression of opposition. Environmentalism — ecological sustainability, limits to growth. Feminism — gender equality, challenging patriarchy.
International Relations Theories
Realism: States are the primary actors; the international system is anarchic (no world government); states seek power and security; balance of power prevents domination. Liberalism: Cooperation is possible through international institutions (UN, WTO), trade interdependence, and democratic peace theory (democracies don't fight each other). Constructivism: International politics is shaped by ideas, norms, identities — not just material power. Marxist/ Dependency Theory: Global capitalism creates core-periphery exploitation.
Civil Society and Interest Groups
Civil society is the arena of organized social life that is voluntary, self-generating, and independent of the state. Includes: NGOs, religious organizations, labor unions, professional associations, advocacy groups. Interest groups seek to influence policy without holding office. Pluralism (Dahl) argues that many competing groups prevent any single faction from dominating. Iron triangles (bureaucratic agencies, congressional committees, interest groups) can dominate policy in specific areas.
Public Opinion and Political Participation
Public opinion is the aggregate of individual attitudes on political issues. Measured through surveys and polls (with challenges: question wording, sampling bias, social desirability bias). Political participation includes: voting, campaigning, contacting officials, protesting, and community engagement. Wealthier, more educated citizens participate more. Voter turnout varies: compulsory voting (Australia ~91%), voluntary voting (US ~55-65% presidential, ~40% midterm).
Constitutions and Rule of Law
A constitution is the supreme law establishing government structure, powers, and citizen rights. Types: Codified (single written document — US, India) vs. Uncodified (based on statutes, conventions, traditions — UK, New Zealand). Rule of law means everyone, including government officials, is subject to the law. Components: legal certainty, equality before the law, independent judiciary, protection of fundamental rights. Judicial review allows courts to invalidate unconstitutional laws (US, India, Germany).
Worked Examples & Case Studies
Example 1: Applying Separation of Powers — US System
Legislative (Congress): Makes laws, controls spending, declares war, confirms appointments, ratifies treaties.
Executive (President): Enforces laws, commands military, negotiates treaties, appoints judges, vetoes legislation.
Judicial (Supreme Court): Interprets laws, judicial review (Marbury v. Madison 1803), resolves disputes.
Checks: Presidential veto → Congress can override (2/3 majority). Senate confirms appointments → President nominates. Court judicial review → President appoints judges, Congress confirms. Impeachment → Congress removes executive/judicial officials.
Example 2: Electoral Systems Comparison
Election: 100,000 voters, 4 parties competing for 10 seats. Results: Party A 40%, Party B 30%, Party C 20%, Party D 10%.
FPTP (10 single-member districts): Likely Party A wins most seats (possibly all 10 if districted favorably). Parties C and D may win zero seats despite 30% combined vote. Two-party tendency.
PR (single nationwide district): Party A: 4 seats, Party B: 3 seats, Party C: 2 seats, Party D: 1 seat. Proportional outcome encourages multiparty system.
MMP (5 FPTP + 5 PR seats): Combines local representation with proportionality. Voters have two votes: one for district representative, one for party list.
Example 3: Levels of Analysis — WWI Causes
Individual level: Kaiser Wilhelm II's aggressive personality, Tsar Nicholas II's weak leadership, Franz Ferdinand's assassination by Gavrilo Princip.
State level: German militarism, Austro-Hungarian ethnic tensions, Russian Pan-Slavism, French revanchism (desire to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine), British imperial interests.
Systemic level: Alliance system (Triple Alliance vs. Triple Entente) creating domino effect, arms race (Anglo-German naval competition), imperialist competition for colonies, balance of power breakdown, no effective international institution (pre-League of Nations).
Case Study: The European Union — Supranational Governance
Background: EU evolved from European Coal and Steel Community (1951) to European Economic Community (1957) to European Union (1993, Maastricht Treaty). 27 member states (post-Brexit), ~450 million people.
Political Analysis: (1) Supranationalism vs. intergovernmentalism: EU Commission proposes legislation (supranational); Council of Ministers represents national governments (intergovernmental). (2) Democratic deficit: European Parliament has limited powers; low voter turnout (50% in 2019). (3) Integration theory (Haas): Neofunctionalism — integration in one sector "spills over" into others. (4) Challenges: Brexit (UK left 2020), migration crisis, Eurozone debt crisis (Greece 2015), rule of law disputes (Hungary, Poland), enlargement fatigue.
Case Study: India — World's Largest Democracy
Background: Independent 1947, constitution adopted 1950. Federal parliamentary republic with 28 states, 8 union territories. Population: 1.4 billion.
Political Analysis: (1) Federalism: Strong center (Union List) vs. states (State List) with concurrent jurisdiction. (2) Parliamentary system: Prime Minister (head of government) accountable to Lok Sabha (lower house); President (head of state) largely ceremonial. (3) Party system: Historically Congress-dominated, now BJP-dominated; rise of regional parties creating coalition governments. (4) Challenges: Religious tensions (Hindu-Muslim), caste politics, economic inequality, judicial activism, media freedom concerns, emergency powers abuse (1975-77 Emergency).
Practice Problems
Problem 1: What are the three types of legitimate authority according to Max Weber? Give one example of each.
Answer: Traditional (British monarchy — heredity and custom), Charismatic (Nelson Mandela — personal qualities and moral authority), Legal-Rational (US President — elected through constitutional procedures, limited term).
Problem 2: According to Duverger's Law, what type of electoral system tends to produce two-party systems? Why?
Answer: Single-member plurality (FPTP). Two reasons: (1) Mechanical effect — third parties can't win seats even with substantial vote share; (2) Psychological effect — voters strategically abandon third parties to avoid "wasting" votes.
Problem 3: Differentiate between unitary, federal, and confederal systems. Give an example of each.
Answer: Unitary — centralized power (France). Federal — power divided between national and regional governments (United States, Germany). Confederal — states retain sovereignty, weak center (EU, historical Articles of Confederation).
Problem 4: What is the "democratic peace theory"? What evidence supports it?
Answer: Democratic peace theory: democracies rarely fight each other. Evidence: Statistical analysis of wars since 1816 shows near-zero instances of war between liberal democracies. Explanations: shared norms of conflict resolution, institutional constraints, economic interdependence, transparency. Critiques: definition of democracy, few true democracies historically, correlation ≠ causation.
Problem 5: Analyze the concept of sovereignty. How is sovereignty challenged in the modern world?
Answer: Sovereignty = supreme authority within a territory. Challenges: (1) International institutions (UN, EU, WTO) require member states to limit sovereignty. (2) Globalization — capital flows, MNCs transcend borders. (3) Human rights — R2P (Responsibility to Protect) doctrine allows intervention in sovereign states. (4) International law — treaties bind sovereign states. (5) Supranational organizations like EU have authority over member states.
Problem 6: What is the difference between a presidential and parliamentary system? Give an example of each.
Answer: Presidential (US): President separately elected, fixed term, separation of executive and legislative, president cannot be removed by legislature (except impeachment). Parliamentary (UK, India): Prime Minister is leader of majority in legislature, no fixed term, fusion of executive and legislative, can be removed by no-confidence vote.
Problem 7: Apply realist theory to explain the Cold War arms race.
Answer: Realism explains the arms race through: (1) Anarchy — no world government means states must self-help, (2) Security dilemma — US buildup threatens USSR and vice versa, (3) Power maximization — nuclear weapons = ultimate power, (4) Balance of power — mutual deterrence (MAD — Mutually Assured Destruction) prevented direct conflict, (5) Relative gains — each side focused on not falling behind, not absolute welfare.
Problem 8: What is civil society? Why is it important for democracy?
Answer: Civil society = voluntary organizations outside state and market (NGOs, unions, religious groups, advocacy organizations). Important because: (1) Checks state power, (2) Provides avenues for political participation, (3) Socializes citizens into democratic norms, (4) Represents diverse interests, (5) Promotes government accountability and transparency, (6) Builds social capital and trust (Putnam's "Bowling Alone").