Key Formulas & Frameworks
Physiological β Safety β Love/Belonging β Esteem β Self-Actualization
Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs motivate behavior
UCS β UCR (Unconditioned Stimulus β Unconditioned Response)
NS + UCS β UCR (Neutral Stimulus paired with UCS)
CS β CR (Conditioned Stimulus β Conditioned Response)
Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization, Discrimination
Positive Reinforcement: Behavior + Pleasant stimulus β Behavior increases
Negative Reinforcement: Behavior + Aversive stimulus removed β Behavior increases
Positive Punishment: Behavior + Aversive stimulus β Behavior decreases
Negative Punishment: Behavior + Pleasant stimulus removed β Behavior decreases
Sensorimotor (0β2 yrs): Object permanence, sensory exploration
Preoperational (2β7 yrs): Egocentrism, animism, lack of conservation
Concrete Operational (7β11 yrs): Conservation, logical thinking (concrete)
Formal Operational (11+ yrs): Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking
Trust vs. Mistrust (0β1) β Autonomy vs. Shame (1β3) β Initiative vs. Guilt (3β6) β Industry vs. Inferiority (6β12) β Identity vs. Role Confusion (12β18) β Intimacy vs. Isolation (18β40) β Generativity vs. Stagnation (40β65) β Integrity vs. Despair (65+)
Oral (0β1) β Anal (1β3) β Phallic (3β6) β Latency (6βpuberty) β Genital (puberty+)
Structural Model: Id (pleasure principle) β Ego (reality principle) β Superego (morality principle)
Defense Mechanisms: Repression, Projection, Displacement, Sublimation, Rationalization, Denial, Regression, Reaction Formation
Activating Event β Beliefs (thoughts) β Consequences (emotions/behaviors)
ABC Model: Disputing irrational beliefs changes emotional consequences
Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
Trait theory: Personality dimensions exist on continua
Pearson Correlation: r = Ξ£[(XβXΜ)(YβΘ²)] Γ· β[Ξ£(XβXΜ)Β² Γ Ξ£(YβΘ²)Β²]
Cohen's d (Effect Size): d = (Mβ β Mβ) Γ· Οpooled
Intimacy + Passion + Commitment = Love
Types: Liking (intimacy only), Infatuated (passion only), Empty (commitment only), Companionate (intimacy+commitment), Fatuous (passion+commitment), Consummate (all three)
Core Concepts
Nature vs. Nurture
The debate over whether behavior is determined more by genetics (nature) or environment (nurture). Modern psychology recognizes that both interact β most traits result from gene-environment interaction (epigenetics). Heritability estimates (e.g., IQ β 50% heritable) describe population variance, not individual determination.
Consciousness and the Unconscious
Freud proposed that most mental processes occur outside conscious awareness. The unconscious contains repressed memories, desires, and automatic processes. Modern cognitive psychology studies automatic processing, implicit memory, and unconscious bias. Altered states include sleep (REM and NREM stages), hypnosis, meditation, and drug-induced states.
Memory Systems
Three-stage model: Sensory memory (iconic/echoic, milliseconds to seconds), Short-term/Working memory (7Β±2 items, 15β30 seconds), Long-term memory (unlimited, potentially permanent). Types of long-term memory: Explicit (declarative β episodic and semantic) and Implicit (procedural, priming, classical conditioning).
Social Psychology β Conformity and Obedience
Asch's Conformity Experiments: 75% of participants conformed to an obviously wrong group answer at least once. Milgram's Obedience Studies: 65% of participants administered what they believed were lethal electric shocks when ordered by an authority figure. Factors: legitimacy of authority, proximity, institutional support, modeling of defiance.
Stress and Coping
Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome: Alarm β Resistance β Exhaustion. Lazarus's Cognitive Appraisal Model: Primary appraisal (is this a threat?) β Secondary appraisal (can I cope?). Coping strategies: Problem-focused (change the situation), Emotion-focused (manage emotional response), Avoidance. Chronic stress impairs immune function, memory, and cardiovascular health.
Mental Disorders (DSM-5)
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5) classifies mental disorders. Major categories: Anxiety disorders (GAD, phobias, panic), Mood disorders (major depression, bipolar), Schizophrenia spectrum, Personality disorders (borderline, antisocial), Neurodevelopmental (ADHD, autism), and Trauma-related disorders (PTSD). The biopsychosocial model considers biological, psychological, and social factors.
Motivation Theories
Maslow: Hierarchy of needs from survival to self-actualization. Herzberg's Two-Factor: Hygiene factors (prevent dissatisfaction) vs. Motivators (create satisfaction). Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan): Intrinsic motivation requires autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Expectancy Theory (Vroom): Motivation = Expectancy Γ Instrumentality Γ Valence.
Learning and Behaviorism
Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner): Psychology should study observable behavior only. Classical conditioning (Pavlov): associative learning between stimuli. Operant conditioning (Skinner): behavior shaped by consequences. Observational learning (Bandura's Bobo doll): learning through imitation and vicarious reinforcement. Bobo doll experiment showed children imitated aggressive behavior observed in adults.
Worked Examples & Case Studies
Example 1: Classical Conditioning Analysis
Scenario: A child fears dogs after being bitten. Analyze using Pavlovian conditioning.
Solution: UCS = Dog bite (pain/fear). UCR = Fear response. NS = Sight of any dog. After bite: CS = Sight of dog. CR = Fear response. Generalization: Child now fears all dogs, even friendly ones. Discrimination training: Therapy could help child distinguish dangerous vs. safe dogs. Extinction: Repeated exposure to friendly dogs without bites would gradually reduce fear response.
Example 2: Piaget's Conservation Task
Experiment: Show a child two identical beakers with equal water. Pour one into a taller, thinner glass. Ask: "Is there the same amount?"
Preoperational (2β7): Child says the taller glass has more β cannot conserve. Centration (focuses on height only), irreversibility (cannot mentally reverse), lack of transformation understanding.
Concrete Operational (7β11): Child says the amount is the same β conservation achieved. Understands reversibility (could pour back), decentration (considers height AND width simultaneously).
Example 3: CBT β Challenging Irrational Thoughts
Scenario: A student thinks "If I fail this exam, my life is ruined." This creates anxiety and procrastination.
CBT Analysis: Activating Event: Upcoming exam. Belief: "If I fail, my life is ruined" (catastrophizing, all-or-nothing thinking). Consequences: Anxiety, avoidance. Disputation: "Have others failed and succeeded? Is one exam truly life-defining? What evidence supports this belief?" Alternative belief: "This exam matters, but my worth isn't defined by it. I can recover from failure."
Case Study: Phineas Gage (1848) β Brain and Personality
Background: Railway foreman Phineas Gage survived an explosion that drove an iron rod through his skull, destroying part of his prefrontal cortex.
Psychological Significance: Before: responsible, intelligent, sociable. After: impulsive, profane, unreliable. His case demonstrated that the prefrontal cortex is critical for personality, decision-making, impulse control, and social behavior. Led to understanding of localization of brain function and the neural basis of personality.
Case Study: Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo, 1971)
Background: 24 male college students randomly assigned as "prisoners" or "guards" in a simulated prison. Experiment stopped after 6 days (planned for 14) due to extreme psychological harm.
Psychological Analysis: (1) Situational power: Normal students adopted extreme roles rapidly, (2) Deindividuation: Guards wore uniforms and mirrored sunglasses, reducing personal accountability, (3) Institutional power: The prison environment itself enabled abuse, (4) Learned helplessness: Prisoners accepted abuse passively. Criticisms: Demand characteristics, lack of ecological validity, researcher bias (Zimbardo acted as superintendent). Legacy: Influenced prison reform and ethical guidelines (institutional review boards).
Practice Problems
Problem 1: In classical conditioning, what is the difference between generalization and discrimination? Give an example of each.
Answer: Generalization: responding similarly to similar stimuli (fear of all dogs after being bitten). Discrimination: responding differently to distinct stimuli (fear of aggressive dogs but not friendly ones).
Problem 2: Classify these as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, or negative punishment: (a) Taking aspirin removes a headache β take aspirin more. (b) A child gets a spanking for misbehaving. (c) A teacher removes homework for good behavior. (d) An employee receives a bonus for good performance.
Answer: (a) Negative reinforcement (aversive stimulus removed). (b) Positive punishment (aversive added). (c) Negative reinforcement (aversive removed). (d) Positive reinforcement (pleasant added).
Problem 3: At what Piaget stage can a child understand that a flattened ball of clay has the same mass as a round ball? Why?
Answer: Concrete operational stage (7β11 years). The child has developed conservation β understanding that appearance changes don't change quantity/mass.
Problem 4: What did Milgram's obedience experiments demonstrate? What was the maximum shock level most participants administered?
Answer: Ordinary people will obey authority figures even when instructed to harm others. 65% administered the maximum 450V shock (labeled "XXX β Danger, Severe Shock").
Problem 5: Calculate the Z-score for a test score of 85 when the mean is 75 and standard deviation is 10.
Answer: z = (85 β 75) Γ· 10 = 1.0 (one standard deviation above the mean, 84th percentile).
Problem 6: What are the three components of Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love? Which combination produces consummate love?
Answer: Intimacy, Passion, Commitment. Consummate love = all three components present.
Problem 7: Identify the defense mechanism: A person who is angry at their boss yells at their spouse instead.
Answer: Displacement β redirecting emotions from the original source (boss) to a safer target (spouse).
Problem 8: What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? Give an example of each. Which is generally more sustainable?
Answer: Intrinsic: motivation from internal satisfaction (reading because you enjoy it). Extrinsic: motivation from external rewards (reading for a grade). Intrinsic motivation is generally more sustainable and leads to greater persistence and creativity.