Key Formulas & Frameworks
Christianity (2.3B) β Islam (1.9B) β Hinduism (1.2B) β Buddhism (500M) β Sikhism (30M) β Judaism (15M) β BahΓ‘'Γ (8M) β Jainism (5M) β Shinto (4M) β Taoism (20M)
Approximate global adherents (2024 estimates)
Biblical Theology β Historical Theology β Systematic Theology β Practical Theology β Constructive Theology
Approaches to organizing and interpreting religious knowledge
Revelation (General + Special) β Inspiration β Canon β Interpretation (Hermeneutics) β Application
How Christians understand God's self-disclosure
Cosmological (cause) β Teleological (design) β Ontological (concept) β Moral (conscience) β Religious Experience (encounter)
Aquinas' Five Ways + modern formulations
Tawhid (Oneness of God) β Nubuwwah (Prophethood) β Ma'ad (Resurrection/Afterlife) β Adl (Divine Justice) β Imamah (Leadership β Shia)
Five Roots of Religion (Usul al-Din) in Shia Islam
Samkhya (enumeration) β Yoga (discipline) β Nyaya (logic) β Vaisheshika (particularity) β Mimamsa (ritual) β Vedanta (end of knowledge)
Six orthodox (astika) schools of Hindu philosophy
Dukkha (suffering) β Samudaya (origin of suffering) β Nirodha (cessation) β Magga (path)
The foundation of Buddhist teaching
Covenant (Brit) β Torah (Instruction) β Mitzvot (Commandments) β Tikkun Olam (Repairing the World) β Shekhinah (Divine Presence)
Core concepts in Jewish theology and practice
Core Concepts
Revelation and Scripture
Revelation is God's self-disclosure to humanity. General revelation β through nature, conscience, history (available to all). Special revelation β through Scripture, prophets, and (in Christianity) Jesus Christ. Scripture β sacred texts considered authoritative: Bible (Christianity), Qur'an (Islam), Torah/Tanakh (Judaism), Vedas (Hinduism), Tripitaka (Buddhism). Canon β the officially recognized collection of sacred texts. Inspiration β the belief that Scripture is divinely guided.
The Problem of Evil and Theodicy
The problem of evil challenges belief in an all-powerful, all-knowing, all-good God: If God is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent, why does evil exist? Logical problem: God and evil are incompatible. Evidential problem: The amount/kind of evil makes God's existence unlikely. Theodicies (defenses): Free will (Augustine, Plantinga β evil from free creatures). Soul-making (Irenaeus, Hick β suffering develops virtue). Natural law (evil from natural processes necessary for free creation). Mystery (beyond human comprehension).
Christology (Nature of Christ)
Christology studies the person and work of Jesus Christ. Key questions: Who is Jesus? What did he do? Incarnation β God becoming human (John 1:14). Hypostatic union β two natures (divine + human) in one person (Chalcedon, 451 CE). Atonement theories: Christus Victor (Christ defeats evil), Satisfaction (Anselm β honor restored), Penal substitution (Reformers β Christ bears punishment), Moral influence (Abelard β love transforms), Ransom (early church β liberation from Satan).
Islamic Theology β Tawhid and the 99 Names
Tawhid (ΨͺΩΨΩΨ―) β the absolute oneness of God β is the foundation of Islam. God is One, unique, eternal, and unlike creation. The 99 Names of Allah (Asma ul-Husna) describe divine attributes: Ar-Rahman (The Most Merciful), Al-Malik (The King), Al-Quddus (The Holy), As-Salam (The Source of Peace), Al-Mu'min (The Guardian of Faith). Shirk (associating partners with God) is the gravest sin. Islamic theology emphasizes God's transcendence (tanzih) while affirming knowable attributes (tashbih).
Hindu Concepts β Brahman, Atman, and Moksha
Brahman β the ultimate reality, the ground of all being (impersonal absolute in Advaita Vedanta; personal God in Dvaita). Atman β the individual soul/self. Advaita Vedanta (Shankara): Atman = Brahman (non-dual β the individual soul is identical with ultimate reality). Dvaita (Madhva): Atman β Brahman (dualistic β God and souls eternally distinct). Moksha β liberation from samsara (cycle of rebirth) through knowledge (jnana), devotion (bhakti), or action (karma). Karma β moral causation across lifetimes. Dharma β righteous duty according to one's nature and station.
Comparative Theology and Interfaith Dialogue
Comparative theology examines similarities and differences across religious traditions. Approaches: Exclusivism β only one religion is true. Inclusivism β one religion is fullest truth, but others contain partial truth. Pluralism (Hick) β all religions are valid responses to the Ultimate. Particularity β each religion is unique, dialogue enriches without relativizing. Interfaith dialogue seeks understanding, cooperation on shared concerns (peace, justice, environment), and mutual enrichment without syncretism.
Worked Examples & Case Studies
Example 1: Applying the Four Noble Truths
First Truth β Dukkha (Suffering): Life involves suffering β birth, aging, sickness, death, separation from loved ones, not getting what we want. Even pleasure is dukkha (impermanent, unsatisfactory).
Second Truth β Samudaya (Origin): Suffering arises from craving (tanha) β desire for pleasure, existence, non-existence. Ignorance (avidya) of impermanence fuels craving.
Third Truth β Nirodha (Cessation): Suffering can end by eliminating craving. This state of liberation is Nirvana (extinguishing of the fires of greed, hatred, delusion).
Fourth Truth β Magga (Path): The Noble Eightfold Path β Right View, Right Intention, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration β leads to the cessation of suffering.
Example 2: Theodicy Analysis β Free Will Defense
Problem: An all-powerful, all-good God should prevent evil. Evil exists. Therefore, such a God doesn't exist.
Plantinga's Free Will Defense: (1) God created beings with free will (greater good). (2) Free will necessarily includes the possibility of evil choices. (3) God cannot create free beings who always choose good β that's logically contradictory. (4) Therefore, God is not responsible for evil β free creatures are. (5) It's possible that every free creature suffers from "transworld depravity" (always chooses evil in some possible world) β God couldn't create a world with free will and no evil.
Critique: Doesn't explain natural evil (earthquakes, disease) β only moral evil (human choices). Responses: Natural evil may be necessary for natural laws that enable free will, or may result from non-human free beings (demons), or may serve soul-making purposes.
Example 3: Christological Council β Chalcedon (451 CE)
Question: How are divine and human natures united in Christ?
Heresies: Docetism β Christ only seemed human. Apollinarianism β Christ had human body but divine mind. Nestorianism β two separate persons in Christ. Monophysitism β one nature (divine absorbed human).
Chalcedonian Definition: Christ is one person (hypostasis) in two natures (physis) β divine and human β "without confusion, without change, without division, without separation." The natures are united but not mixed; distinct but not separate.
Significance: Established orthodox Christology for Catholic, Orthodox, and most Protestant churches. Oriental Orthodox churches rejected Chalcedon (Miaphysite β one united nature).
Case Study: Liberation Theology (Latin America)
Background: 1960sβ1970s Latin American Catholic movement responding to poverty and oppression. Key figures: Gustavo GutiΓ©rrez, Leonardo Boff, Jon Sobrino, Oscar Romero.
Theological Method: (1) See β analyze social reality (poverty, injustice, dependency). (2) Judge β interpret through Scripture and tradition (Exodus, prophets, Jesus' preferential option for the poor). (3) Act β transform society through Base Ecclesial Communities (CEBs), education, advocacy. Key themes: God's preferential option for the poor, sin as structural (not just individual), salvation as liberation (spiritual + social), Church as sacrament of liberation. Impact: Influenced global theology (Black theology, Feminist theology, Dalit theology); Romero assassinated (1980) for defending poor; Vatican criticized "Marxist" elements but affirmed option for poor.
Case Study: The Protestant Reformation β Sola Scriptura
Background: Martin Luther (1483β1546) challenged Roman Catholic practices, sparking the Reformation (1517).
Five Solas: Sola Scriptura (Scripture alone) β Bible is supreme authority, not tradition or Pope. Sola Fide (Faith alone) β justification by faith, not works. Sola Gratia (Grace alone) β salvation by God's grace, not human merit. Solus Christus (Christ alone) β Christ is sole mediator, not saints or priests. Soli Deo Gloria (Glory to God alone) β all glory to God, not human institutions. Theological shift: From sacramental salvation (through Church) to forensic declaration (God declares righteous through faith). Impact: Fragmentation of Western Christianity, rise of denominations, emphasis on literacy (Bible in vernacular), work ethic (Weber), individual conscience.
Practice Problems
Problem 1: What are the Five Pillars of Islam? Briefly describe each.
Answer: (1) Shahada β declaration of faith ("No god but Allah, Muhammad is His messenger"). (2) Salat β five daily prayers facing Mecca. (3) Zakat β almsgiving (2.5% of wealth annually). (4) Sawm β fasting during Ramadan. (5) Hajj β pilgrimage to Mecca (once in lifetime if able).
Problem 2: What is the difference between general and special revelation?
Answer: General revelation: God's self-disclosure through nature, conscience, and history β available to all people. Special revelation: God's self-disclosure through Scripture, prophets, and (in Christianity) Jesus Christ β specific, salvific knowledge. General reveals God's existence/power; special reveals God's will and salvation.
Problem 3: What are the three main branches of Christianity? What distinguishes them?
Answer: Catholicism (Pope as authority, sacraments, tradition + Scripture), Orthodoxy (conciliar authority, mysticism, icons, no papal supremacy), Protestantism (sola scriptura, sola fide, priesthood of all believers, no papal authority). Distinctions center on authority, salvation, sacraments, and church governance.
Problem 4: What is the problem of evil? Name two theodicies.
Answer: The problem of evil: How can an all-powerful, all-good God allow evil? Theodicies: (1) Free will defense (evil from free creatures' choices). (2) Soul-making theodicy (suffering develops virtue and character). (3) Natural law theodicy (natural evil necessary for natural laws enabling free will).
Problem 5: What is the difference between Advaita Vedanta and Dvaita Vedanta?
Answer: Advaita (Shankara): Non-dual β Atman (individual soul) is identical with Brahman (ultimate reality). Liberation through knowledge (jnana) of this identity. Dvaita (Madhva): Dualistic β Atman and Brahman are eternally distinct. God (Vishnu) is supreme; souls are dependent. Liberation through devotion (bhakti).
Problem 6: What is the doctrine of the Trinity? How does it differ from modalism and tritheism?
Answer: Trinity: One God in three persons (Father, Son, Holy Spirit) β one essence, three hypostases. Modalism (Sabellianism): One God manifesting in three modes/modes (heresy β denies distinct persons). Tritheism: Three separate gods (heresy β denies unity). Orthodox: Three persons, one substance β distinct but inseparable.
Problem 7: What is the Eightfold Path? List all eight components.
Answer: (1) Right View (understanding Four Noble Truths), (2) Right Intention (renunciation, harmlessness, goodwill), (3) Right Speech (truthful, kind, no gossip), (4) Right Action (no killing, stealing, sexual misconduct), (5) Right Livelihood (ethical occupation), (6) Right Effort (cultivate wholesome states), (7) Right Mindfulness (awareness of body, feelings, mind, phenomena), (8) Right Concentration (meditative absorption).
Problem 8: What is the difference between exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism in theology of religions?
Answer: Exclusivism: Only one religion is true; salvation only through it (e.g., Christianity alone). Inclusivism: One religion is fullest truth, but salvation possible through other religions (God's grace extends beyond explicit faith). Pluralism (Hick): All major religions are valid, culturally conditioned responses to the same Ultimate Reality; no single religion has exclusive truth.